Do you ever drive to a different part of town and say to yourself, “Wow, gas is so much more expensive here”?
Or maybe you’ve thought of waiting to buy tickets to a sporting event in hopes that they’ll drop in price.
Both of these are common examples of price discrimination and happen more often than you think. In fact, several businesses today use retail pricing software to manage and analyze their pricing strategies.
Price discrimination is the practice of charging different prices to different customers for the same product or service, based on factors like willingness to pay, location, or purchase volume. Businesses use it to maximize profits by capturing consumer surplus.
Sellers engage in price discrimination when they assume that some groups of buyers can be charged different prices depending on their characteristics or the perceived value of a particular good or service. For example, the product or service may be a different price for adults versus senior citizens or domestic buyers versus international buyers.
Travel, healthcare, entertainment, and telecommunications are some of the sectors that frequently use price discrimination.
Price discrimination is a pricing strategy where companies charge different prices for the same product or service, not because costs differ, but because customers have different willingness to pay. The aim is to capture more consumer surplus (the gap between what a buyer would pay and what they actually pay) by tailoring prices to segments.
Where you’ll see it (with examples):
By adjusting price to segment, businesses can grow revenue without changing the underlying product, so long as the approach remains transparent, compliant, and fair to customers.
The primary reason? Profit maximization.
By tailoring pricing to different segments, businesses can:
It’s all about the market’s price elasticity. In elastic markets, small price changes greatly affect demand. In inelastic markets, consumers are less responsive, which is where businesses can charge more.
Let’s say the marginal cost of producing a good is the same across markets. If demand is less elastic, businesses can increase prices without losing customers. That’s why tools like demand planning software help sellers forecast pricing strategies more effectively.
Companies benefit from price discrimination because it encourages customers to buy more products while also luring in other customers who would not have been interested before.
The point of doing so is that a seller can capture the consumer surplus. The goal of price discrimination is to generate the most revenue possible for the product or service they are offering.
When sellers go about price discrimination, they look at the type of market their product or service is in - that is, whether it is an elastic or an inelastic market. In an elastic market, the price can change the demand for the product. But, in an inelastic market, the demand won't change when the price changes.
When the elasticity of demand is different in one market than in another, price discrimination becomes profitable. This is why some firms utilize demand planning to prepare ahead of time.
For those who are visual learners, let's break it down.
If the marginal cost (MC) of a product or service is consistent across all markets, whether or not it's divided, it will equal the average total cost (ATC). Maximum profit occurs at the price and output, where MC equals marginal revenue (MR).
However, if the market is separated, then the price and output of a product in an inelastic market will be P and Q, while P1 and Q1 in an elastic sub-market.
Image source: Economics Online
In most countries, yes — with limits.
Price discrimination is generally legal unless it violates antitrust laws (e.g., Robinson–Patman Act) by harming competition. It’s also illegal if it leads to:
Price discrimination is legal, but consumer protection laws are stronger. For example, companies must disclose if pricing varies by country or user profile.
Regulations vary, but as long as pricing isn't deceptive or discriminatory based on protected traits, most forms of commercial price discrimination are allowed.
There are three types of price discrimination that you can encounter: first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree. These degrees of price discrimination sometimes go by other names: personalized pricing, product versioning or menu pricing, and group pricing, respectively.
First-degree price discrimination, or perfect price discrimination, happens when a business charges the maximum possible price for each unit.
Since prices vary for each unit, the company selling will collect all consumer surplus, or economic surplus, for itself. In many industries, a company will commit first-degree price discrimination by determining the amount each customer is willing to pay for a specific product and selling that product for that exact price. This can be done using market research strategies in addition to using budgeting and forecasting software.
Second-degree price discrimination, otherwise known as product versioning or menu pricing, happens when a company charges a different price for varying quantities consumed, such as offering a discount on products purchased in bulk. Simply put, firms price their products in line with how much they can sell.
It doesn't take much work to draw in customers and divide them up into niche markets, making this second-degree price discrimination incredibly straightforward to implement. This tactic is utilized by warehouse stores or by phone companies that charge extra for usage above a certain monthly cap.
Third-degree price discrimination, or group pricing, is when a company charges a different price to specific customer segments such as students, military personnel, or older adults. This is the most common type of price discrimination.
Third-degree price discrimination helps companies minimize excess profits by adjusting prices based on individual customers' willingness to pay. Last-minute travelers often encounter third-degree price discrimination in the tourism and travel industry.
EXAMPLE: Airlines often offer a certain capacity for different booking classes. Booking early with low-cost airlines often saves money. Most airlines raise prices as travel approaches because consumer demand becomes inelastic. Late bookers usually see travel as necessary and are willing to pay more.
Price discrimination is only possible under special market conditions.
The company must operate in a market with imperfect competition. There needs to be a certain degree of monopoly for successful price discrimination. In a market with perfect competition, there would be insufficient power to affect prices.
The company must be able to prevent resale. In other words, customers who have previously purchased an item at a discount cannot resell it to customers who are likely to have paid full price for the same product.
Demand elasticities must differ among consumer groups (i.e., low-income individuals leaning toward inexpensive tickets compared to business travelers).
Market segmentation (age, gender, interests, geography, product, time of year) must be ensured no two markets get intertwined.
Coupons, age discounts, occupational discounts, retail incentives, and gender-based pricing are a few commonly seen price discrimination examples for business operations.
If you're a business looking to utilize price discrimination, some advantages of price discrimination include:
On the other hand, price discrimination can result in some disadvantages, too, especially for the consumer. They include:
While businesses benefit, consumers often have mixed feelings about price discrimination.
Studies show that perceptions of fairness influence:
For example:
Transparency matters. Businesses that explain their pricing logic (e.g., student discounts, loyalty pricing) tend to retain trust and reduce churn.
Today’s pricing strategies are powered by data, AI, and automation, enabling companies to implement complex discrimination models at scale.
Here’s how digital transformation is reshaping the practice:
Have more questions? Find the answers below.
Price discrimination is a pricing strategy where a seller charges different prices for the same product or service based on the customer’s willingness to pay, location, or purchase timing. It includes first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree discrimination to maximize revenue and extract consumer surplus.
The three types of price discrimination are first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree. First-degree charges each customer their maximum willingness to pay. Second-degree offers different prices based on quantity or product version. Third-degree sets prices based on customer segments like age, location, or income level.
Real-life examples of price discrimination include airline tickets priced higher close to departure (third-degree), bulk discounts at wholesale stores (second-degree), and personalized pricing in online shopping based on browsing behavior (first-degree). Each example reflects how businesses adjust prices based on customer data or purchasing patterns.
Companies use price discrimination to maximize profits by capturing more consumer surplus. By charging different prices based on willingness to pay, location, or demographics, businesses can increase revenue, manage demand efficiently, and expand access to different market segments.
The advantages of price discrimination include higher profits, better market segmentation, and improved access for price-sensitive customers. Disadvantages include potential unfairness, customer dissatisfaction, and legal risks. While it boosts revenue, it can harm brand reputation if perceived as exploitative or discriminatory.
Industries that use price discrimination include airlines, telecommunications, hospitality, software, and entertainment. These sectors adjust prices based on factors like booking time, usage levels, customer location, or demographics to maximize revenue and efficiently target different consumer segments.
Companies prevent resale in price discrimination by using product differentiation, digital rights management, purchase limits, and legal agreements. These strategies ensure that low-priced goods cannot be easily resold to high-paying customers, preserving segmented pricing across markets.
Price discrimination can reduce consumer trust if customers feel prices are unfair or inconsistent. When buyers discover they paid more than others for the same product, it may damage brand perception, lower satisfaction, and discourage repeat purchases, especially if transparency is lacking.
AI plays a central role in modern price discrimination by analyzing consumer data, predicting willingness to pay, and automating dynamic pricing. It enables businesses to personalize prices in real time based on behavior, location, and device type, increasing revenue while tailoring offers to individual customers.
Most often, all that customers want is to be treated fairly. Customers do have every right to be outraged if they discover they are being charged more than their next-door neighbor while shopping. However, it is safe to say that discriminating in pricing is not only legal but also smart business practice.
Usually, customers are misled into thinking they are getting better deals than they actually are. So, sometimes the price you pay is more than what someone else would pay. It’s more common than you think and moving forward, you will hopefully be able to spot price discrimination in action.
Wonder what goes inside a consumer's mind? Get a better understanding of how consumer behavior works!
This article was originally published in 2019. The content has been updated with new information.
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